Partner

Overview

Fairtrade as due diligence partner

Fairtrade is a strong partner for ESG and Human Rights and Environmental Due Diligence (HREDD) work. We can support each step of the corporate due diligence process, including reporting.

We are at our strongest in facilitating stakeholder consultation and collaboration in preventing and mitigating adverse impacts in supply chains.

Collaboration between suppliers, buyers, governments and civil society actors is particularly needed to address systemic human rights and environmental risks and their root causes. For example, child labour is still prevalent in some areas and often rooted in poverty and poor availability or quality of schooling.

Each company has a responsibility to conduct due diligence - and this responsibility cannot be delegated to another company or sustainability initiative.

Still, participation in multi-stakeholder initiatives like Fairtrade can support the implementation of due diligence in many ways.

In the words of the OECD Due Diligence Guidance (page 52):
“Collaboration can be beneficial in pooling knowledge on sector risks and solutions, increasing leverage … and making due diligence more efficient for all. ... Cost sharing and savings is often a benefit to sector collaboration.”

According to the European Parliament

Companies may participate in multi-stakeholder initiatives to support the implementation of aspects of their due diligence obligations to the extent that such initiatives are appropriate to support this task

Position on the proposed Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive, Article 14

Fairtrade support for

Mitigation and remediation

The following chart illustrates Fairtrade’s tools for supporting a company’s work in preventing, mitigating, ceasing and remediating human rights and environmental risks and harms.

International principles expect different levels of due diligence effort depending on the circumstances, risks, size and influence of the company. So collaboration with Fairtrade can form a larger part of due diligence efforts for some companies than others.

Fairtrade’s contribution is strongest, where the highest-risk commodities of the company are in Fairtrade’s product portfolio, the company sources 100% of those commodities as Fairtrade, and the company also participates in Fairtrade’s programme, advocacy and awareness raising work.

Corporate duties

Companies shoulder the overall responsibility for conducting due diligence, even when they partner with Fairtrade – or any other sustainability partner. Work with Fairtrade does not absolve the company of these responsibilities.

The corporate responsibilities include:

Establishing, managing and continuously improving the corporate HREDD process.
Integrating the findings of individual due diligence measures into the HREDD process, so that individual measures inform each other.
Selecting external due diligence partners carefully, tracking the effectiveness of their work, and taking complementary measures where needed. To address risks in supply chains, complementary measures often need to include changes in the company’s purchasing and pricing practices, dialogue and long-term relationships with suppliers, and co-investment in remediation work.
Conducting full due diligence on commodities, geographic areas and corporate functions that are out of its external HREDD partners' scope.
Collaborating with other companies, civil society and public organisations to address systemic human rights and environmental challenges, such as lack of living wages and living incomes in supply chains.
Investing in due diligence work and partnerships so that there is continuous improvement in addressing the salient risks and harms.

Certification

Fairtrade Standards guide certified organisations to design processes and take action on human rights and environmental risks and harms. Fairtrade’s independent certifier, FLOCERT, follows rigorous practices in verifying whether a producer or trader fulfils the Fairtrade Standards.

Fairtrade standards build on UN human rights covenants, ILO conventions and due diligence guidance from the UN and the OECD.
The detailed standards cover a wide range of human rights and environmental issues. See details on Salient Issues.
The standards are well aligned with the expectations of the EU Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) and draft Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CS3D), so sourcing Fairtrade helps companies to align with the emerging reporting requirements.
The standards are revised regularly, through meaningful stakeholder consultation. This entails physical workshops with producers, traders and other stakeholders, especially in Africa, Asia and Latin America but also in market areas. It also entails online surveys and workshops.
Standard and pricing reviews can be requested by producers or any stakeholder.
Fairtrade standards encourage continuous improvement: Fairtrade standards become more demanding one, three and six years after certification.

FLOCERT has ISO 17065 accreditation, only granted to highly competent, consistent and impartial certifiers.
The length of an on-site audit varies from less than one onsite day for low risk traders that only handle one product and do not engage in processing to more than two weeks for large producer organisations.
Fairtrade auditing encourages continuous improvement: Every audit leads to a dialogue in the closing meeting and an agreement on corrective measures whenever non-conformities were identified.
FLOCERT follows a risk-based approach, so unannounced on-site audits are particularly common in areas with high human rights or environmental risks.

Minimum price & premium

HREDD regulations expect companies to adapt their purchasing strategies and practices to reduce the risk that low prices contribute to human rights and environmental harms in supply chains. Fairtrade minimum prices and premium support companies in this.

Fairtrade is the only certification in its product range with non-negotiable minimum prices and premium. The payments are verified by FLOCERT.
Fairtrade Minimum Prices offer producers a safety net against price fluctuations: producers gain the market price or the minimum price, whichever is higher. Stability can facilitate investments in fairer and more sustainable production practices.
Fairtrade Premium – an extra sum of money paid on top of the selling price – allows farmers and workers to invest in community and business projects of their choice. In 2021, Premiums amounted to 202 million euros. Plantation workers allocated 68% and smallholder farmers 16% of their Premium to social investments, including education, healthcare and housing. Our latest monitoring report offers further information.
Farmers and plantation workers decide democratically how to use their Fairtrade Premiums. This builds awareness of democratic practices and can have significant ripple effects in contexts where such practices are not common.

Producer support

Fairtrade supports farmers, workers and their organisations to get organised, develop their management, production and business practices, and build environmental and social sustainability.

We offer this support through physical and online training, advice and networking opportunities, organised by more than 230 in-house employees at Fairtrade Producer Networks in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Unlike other certifications, we do not charge for producer support or audits. Our annual cost is fixed.
Particular support is offered for remediation work, when human rights violations are alleged or identified at a certified organisation. This builds on the Protection Policies and Protection Committees at Fairtrade Producer Networks and Fairtrade International.
To support HREDD, we build producers’ capacity to set-up and maintain their HREDD systems. We collaborate with the International Trade Centre (ITC) to pilot producer support methods and increase the global understanding of the measures needed, in accompaniment to legislation, to foster fair and impactful due diligence in global supply chains.
Producer organisations are satisfied with our support. Our latest annual survey shows that across Africa, Asia and Latin America 75-84 percent of producer organizations were highly satisfied with Fairtrade producer support activities.

Rightsholder engagement

Fairtrade has exceptionally close dialogue with farmers and workers – or “rightsholders”.

We employ more than 230 in-house employees in our Producer Networks in Africa, Asia and Latin America, who maintain ongoing dialogue with local farmer and worker organizations.
Fairtrade is the only global sustainability standard that is equally owned and managed by producers: African, Asian and Latin American Producer Networks hold 50 percent of the decision-making power at Fairtrade.
Farmer and worker organising and collective action are at the core of Fairtrade: Fairtrade only certifies small farmers that are democratically organised into cooperatives, and plantations that allow their workers to join trade unions. Organising and collective action strengthens the position of farmers and workers in their supply chains and societies.
Interviews with farmers, workers and other key stakeholders is a core part of FLOCERT's audit routine. FLOCERT trains its auditors in how to build trust and create a comfortable situation in order that rightsholders would share their experiences and views openly.
Fairtrade can facilitate meaningful engagement with affected stakeholders – farmers and workers in supply chains. These services incur additional costs for corporate partners and are subject to availability, but can demonstrate your sincerity in performing HREDD, benefit your understanding of the real human rights and environmental issues at origin and lend greater credibility to your HREDD measures.

Complaints mechanism

We have global-level mechanisms where any stakeholder can report grievances related to Fairtrade, FLOCERT or a certified organization. We also encourage Fairtrade certified organisations to set up grievance mechanisms.

Since 2015, Fairtrade Standards have required human rights-based grievance mechanisms from the certified plantations and other organisations that depend on hired labour.
Fairtrade is in the process of strengthening the grievance mechanism requirements for traders, farmer organisations and contract production settings by the end of 2024.
Our global-level grievance mechanisms are actively used by many stakeholder groups. For example, in 2022 we received 115 allegations related to certified organisations and 44 complaints related to FLOCERT services. Further information is available on our website here while the statistics for 2022 are here.

Advocacy & awareness

We advocate for public policies and promote consumption patterns that favour responsible business.

Fairtrade offers concrete recommendations for public policy makers, building on our long-running hands-on experience of addressing human rights and environmental challenges in global supply chains.
We bring farmer and worker voices to policy making. This is possible thanks to our ongoing rightsholder engagement and Fairtrade Producer Networks’ active participation in advocacy work.
We facilitate direct encounters and dialogue between farmers, workers, policy makers and businesses, through public events and debates, including side events in international fora such as the climate COP.
At the moment, our advocacy work focuses on living incomes and living wages, mandatory HREDD, deforestation, climate change adaptation and resilience, gender inclusion, and market access.
Fairtrade is rooted in a worldwide movement for fairer trade. Thousands of Fair Trade affiliated towns, universities, faith-based organisations, schools and work places are actively raising public awareness of human rights abuses in supply chains, supported by Fairtrade campaigns and materials.

Programmes & business services

Our tailor-made development projects and business services offer further opportunities for companies to address human rights and environmental challenges in their supply chains.

We coordinate projects on diverse challenges from climate change adaptation to industrial relations, gender rights and democratic management at farmer organisations.
Till today, Fairtrade has completed some 150 development projects around the world. Please find further information on Fairtrade’s project map.
Most projects relate to our strategic programmes, developed together with farmers and workers. For example, the Fairtrade Textile Programme develops working conditions in dozens of Indian textile factories through audits, training and trade union cooperation. The West Africa Cocoa Programme seeks to build strong and resilient small-scale producer organisations (SPOs) that are responsive to their members’ and their business partners’ needs. In sugar, programmatic work focuses on building better labour practices and climate resilience.
Collaboration on programmes usually incurs additional costs for corporate partners. These services are subject to availability.

We can develop customised solutions on living incomes, living wages and climate change mitigation and adaptation, for companies who want to go beyond the use of Fairtrade certification in assuming their responsibility to respect human rights and the environment.
Fairtrade can also offer tailored services on HREDD, including a general advisory service on HREDD, advice on risk assessment, a tailored risk report on a specific product and sourcing area, and a prevention and mitigation plan for one issue and sourcing area.
Any service can be accompanied by a real-time exchange with the farmers, workers, Fairtrade staff and other stakeholders.
These services support companies on their journey towards aligning with the EU Deforestation Regulation, Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD), Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CS3D) and the Green Claims Directive.

Collaboration

We collaborate with trade unions, NGOs, multi-stakeholder initiatives, development agencies, business coalitions and governments at local, national and global level to develop and amplify our efforts.

For example, we have goal-driven collaboration with other sustainability standards through the Global Living Wage Coalition and Living Income Community of Practice.
Together with the World Fair Trade Organisation (WFTO) and its European branch WFTO-Europe, we have established The Fair Trade Advocacy Office (FTAO), which works to influence EU policies and improve the livelihoods of marginalised producers and workers.
Working with the International Trade Centre ITC, we are conducting pilots around Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean to identify good practices in supporting farmer cooperatives with HREDD, and to establish what „Accompanying Measures“ are needed to make HREDD laws effective.

Fairtrade support step-by-step

Fairtrade supports companies with the implementation of each step of due diligence.

While much of this support is provided for all corporate partners that source Fairtrade certified products, we can also offer additional tailored services and programmes. For further information, reach out to the National Fairtrade Organisation in your country.

Note that as a globally active organisation, Fairtrade is working to align with the international standards on due diligence. National due diligence laws are based on these standards by the United Nations and the OECD, but may vary in details.

Please note our disclaimer: Each company has the responsibility to establish and carry out a due diligence process. This responsibility cannot be delegated to Fairtrade or anyone else.

Introduce a risk management system

Information: Fairtrade offers all corporate partners information and support for understanding human rights, environmental issues, due diligence and the role of Fairtrade and meaningful rightsholder engagement in HREDD. Support is available from local Fairtrade organisations in 24 consumer countries and throughout Asia, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean.
Sourcing: Choosing Fairtrade certified commodities can be a significant part of the risk management system, especially for companies whose highest-risk commodities are in Fairtrade’s product portfolio. Our standards include detailed requirements on pricing, child labour, deforestation and many other issues that are salient in agricultural supply chains. Our standards have also for long expected key due diligence measures – and these requirements will be strengthened by the end of 2024.
Tailored service: Fairtrade offers bespoke support to corporate partners for mapping the due diligence expectations, commodity-specific risks and geographic hotspots most salient to them. We produce gap assessments and pragmatic action plans for strengthening the corporate risk management system.
Dialogue: We are uniquely positioned to support dialogue among supply chain actors. Meaningful engagement with potentially affected stakeholders is an essential part of due diligence, as per guidance from the United Nations and the OECD and many existing due diligence laws.
Continuous improvement: Fairtrade also conducts ongoing HREDD (see our human rights commitment and due diligence report), which supports continuous improvement at Fairtrade so that we become increasingly effective at addressing the salient issues and advancing the rights of farmers, workers and other rightsholders.

Risk assessment

Fairtrade Risk Map supports companies and producers in assessing the human rights and environmental risks, harms and root causes in commodities and countries on which Fairtrade has expertise. This information cannot substitute an assessment of the exact chains, business partners and purchasing practices of the company – but it does offer a robust foundation.
Tailored advice: Fairtrade offers pragmatic advice on risk assessment methods and the next steps in strengthening the company’s current processes and meaningful engagement with stakeholders.
Tailored Risk Reports: Our Risk Reports offer a rightsholder informed overview of the salient risks, violations and root causes in a particular commodity and country (e.g. coffee beans from Ethiopia). The reports include top-line recommendations for mitigation measures and can be accompanied by real-time exchange with farmers, workers, Fairtrade staff and other stakeholders.
Supporting suppliers: All Fairtrade certified smallholder farmer organisations conduct regular risk assessment and act on the identified risks. This will be extended to Fairtrade certified traders and plantations in early 2024. We support producer organisations through training and Fairtrade Risk Assessment Tools.
Credibility: Fairtrade itself also conducts ongoing assessment of human rights and environmental risks and harms related to our own operations and certified supply chains.

Grievance mechanism

Supply chains: In Fairtrade certified supply chains, people and organisations are having an increasing access to grievance mechanisms. Certified plantations and other organisations with hired labour have been required to operate human rights-based grievance mechanisms since 2015. A similar requirement is being considered for traders, farmer organisations and contract production. We aim to revise these requirements by the end of 2024.
Global mechanisms: All stakeholders can also utilize Fairtrade’s global complaints mechanisms, with grievances related to Fairtrade, FLOCERT or any certified organization. In 2022, we received 115 allegations related to certified organisations and 44 complaints related to FLOCERT services. Further information is available on our website here while the statistics for 2022 are here.
Constant engagement: It is best practice to complement grievance mechanisms with other approaches for identifying human rights breaches and victims. Initiatives like Fairtrade, that have large presence in production countries, often find out about human rights breaches via discussion and observation rather than through formal grievance mechanisms.
Agency: Grievance mechanisms can only work where people are aware of their rights and not scared to report their concerns. Fairtrade builds rightsholder voice by supporting worker committees and democratic farmer organisations, fairer division of value between producers and buyers, and human rights training to farmers, workers and producer organisations.

Cease, prevent or mitigate risks and impacts

Tools: Fairtrade support for corporate due diligence is at its strongest in this step. The tools that Fairtrade uses to address risks and harms are presented above.
Issues: Please find further information about Fairtrade’s interventions on each salient issue.
Effective: Research shows that Fairtrade mitigates many salient risks and harms. A review of 151 recent academic studies shows that Fairtrade is effective in addressing low farmer incomes and worker wages, poor working conditions, weak democratic organising and adaptation to climate change. Through improved incomes and better standard of living for farmers and workers, Fairtrade supports several other rights, such as health and education.
“Fairtrade has the capacity to contribute to ceasing, preventing, and mitigating certain human rights issues”, notes an empirical study by van Baar and Knoote (2022). It notes that “Fairtrade’s impact, to a large extent, seems to be directed at the most salient human rights issues”, and Fairtrade Producer Networks have a “contextualized and nuanced understanding of thorny issues such as child labour”.
Tailored service: Fairtrade supports companies to identify effective and legitimate actions they can initiate or join in order to address specific risk(s) or harm(s) in a specific sourcing area. Fairtrade’s tailored Prevention and Mitigation Plans offer contextual understanding of the issue, root causes and activities that the company can initiate or join.

Remediate

Remediation: Where cases of child labour, forced labour or gender-based violence are identified or alleged on Fairtrade certified farms, Fairtrade’s global and regional Protection Policies for Children and Vulnerable Adults require and guide the remediation. The top priority is the protection and best interest of the impacted person and the person’s views need to be heard and respected. The exact steps taken and stakeholders involved also depend on the violation and local circumstances.
Collaboration: Through multi-stakeholder approach, we seek to engage all duty bearers and expert protection agencies in the remediation processes. Remediation processes are often lengthy since violations are commonly rooted in the economic and cultural conditions of the supply chain and the local society.
Monitoring: Fairtrade encourages and supports producer organisations in high-risk locations to set up monitoring and remediation systems, where regular farm and household visits are utilised to identify any violations.
Funding: Many Fairtrade certified organisations utilise Fairtrade Premiums for remediation measures, but these costs often surpass the Premium income, so further support is needed. For example, the cost of robust child labour monitoring and remediation system would surpass the Fairtrade Premium income for over 40 percent of West African cocoa farmer organisations. So in June 2023, we launched a programme to support cocoa farmers in covering these costs.
Enabler: While the primary responsibility for providing remedy rests with governments and companies who have caused or contributed to the harm, Fairtrade works to enable or facilitate remedy. In the remedy ecosystem, as proposed for example by Shift, enablers are needed to raise awareness about rights, build various actors’ capacity, provide assistance, and support the development of remedial processes.

Track

Data: Fairtrade offers data and information that companies can use in their due diligence reports and communication to regulators, business partners and consumers. It is generated by FLOCERT audits, Fairtrade’s risk assessment work, and the monitoring and evaluation work by Fairtrade International and Producer Networks.
Continuous improvement: We are developing our data management systems and practices, so that our data can be better analysed and more transparently shared with external stakeholders.
Audits and corrective measures: Whenever an audit reveals non-conformities, this leads to an agreement on corrective measures that the organisation needs to implement. When the number of non-conformities is high and it’s difficult to verify the completion of corrective measures through documents, FLOCERT conducts a follow-up audit.
Monitoring: Our monitoring and evaluation data is collected through an annual survey of Fairtrade producer organizations. Further, every year, we commission several independent studies to evaluate the outcomes and impact of our interventions. For example during the spring 2023, we published evaluation findings related to Fairtrade flower production in East Africa and sugar production in Mauritius. Please find monitoring and impact reports on the website of Fairtrade International.
Research: Fairtrade’s impact is typically scrutinized in several academic articles each year, which we are happy to summarise to our corporate partners.

Communicate

Fairtrade supports corporate partners in communicating about sustainability work in a credible and legitimate manner. Our five key recommendations are to communicate about sustainability as a journey, avoid overselling, be respectful, and communicate about your challenges and your (measured) progress.
We offer a wealth of pictures, citations, examples, analysis, data and other resources and tailored support in a multitude of languages to support your company in reporting on ESG indicators and creating content for your communications work.

According to research

We see Fairtrade as a valuable partner in various steps of human rights due diligence.

A Fair Price for Human Rights Due Diligence, 2022, page 83.

Selecting due diligence partners

There are three key issues to consider when a company is selecting its due diligence partners.

ISEAL Due diligence guidance reminds companies to check, whether a potential partner covers:

the relevant issues,
the relevant supply chains and
the relevant due diligence processes.

Find Fairtrade’s responses below.

1. Fairtrade’s salient issues

When selecting a due diligence partner, check that the potential partner works on the issues that are salient in your operations and/or value chains. Companies are expected to focus their due diligence work on the human rights and environmental issues that are most severe in their operations and value chains.

Fairtrade focuses on issues that are salient in the commodities and geographic areas on which we work. These issues are

Living wage, living income
Child labour
Forced labour
Gender equality
Non-discrimination
Labour rights and conditions
Climate change and deforestation
Water and biodiversity

Please refer to the salient issues pages for further information.

We work towards continuous development, through a holistic set of interventions. Please see the above section on Fairtrade Support for Mitigation and Remediation for further information on our interventions.

2. Fairtrade’s supply chain coverage

Second, check which operations and value chains the potential partner can support with. HREDD efforts need to cover all operations and value chains of the company, but most effort should be directed at the highest risk parts, so it makes sense to select due diligence partners that work on the highest risk raw materials, sourcing areas and business partners.

Fairtrade mainly addresses the risks in primary production. We are also working to strengthen our due diligence requirements for traders, processors and manufacturers.

Fairtrade works with 17 commodities/commodity groups:

Due to the volumes traded, Fairtrade’s leverage is greatest in the supply chains of bananas, cocoa, coffee, cotton, flowers and sugar.
Other commodity groups are carbon credits, cereals, fruit (other than banana), gold, herbs and spices, honey, nuts and oils, sports balls, tea, vegetables, wine grapes.

Please refer to the map for further information on Fairtrade’s geographic coverage.

3. Fairtrade’s due diligence

Third, assess if the potential partner has credible governance and core processes. The OECD Due Diligence Guidance (page 52) proposes that companies check at least whether the initiative has sufficient processes for

governance and stakeholder consultation
addressing and remediating adverse impacts, including grievance management
monitoring and revising its own policies
communicating risks and progress
partnerships.

Here is a summary of Fairtrade’s related processes:

Governance and stakeholder consultation. Fairtrade is the only global sustainability standard that is equally owned and managed by producers: Farmer and worker representatives have 50 percent of the vote at Fairtrade’s General Assembly. There is also a balance between producer and market representatives at the Fairtrade International Board and the Standards Committee that decides the regular updates to Fairtrade standards and prices. Please find further information about our governance on the website of Fairtrade International.

Fairtrade takes consultation very seriously. Standards and pricing updates are built on public consultation, including online surveys, online workshops and physical workshops across Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and market areas. Development programmes are planned with rightsholders. See the section on Managing Risks at Fairtrade for further information.

Addressing, remediating, grievances. Fairtrade has a holistic toolbox for addressing and remediating adverse impacts and grievances. Please see the above section on Fairtrade support for each step of due diligence.

For further information, please see our due diligence report. As the first of its kind for a sustainability certification, the report describes our HREDD process, drawing attention to poverty and inequality as underlying causes of persistent human rights and environmental harms and the need for collective action.

Monitoring and revising own policies. Fairtrade’s global strategy is revised every five years. We also aim to revise the non-product specific standards – standards for traders, plantations and other organisations that rely on hired labour, smallholder farmer organisations, and contract production settings – every five years.

Policies on specific human rights and environmental issues and commodities are revised on needs basis. For example the Fairtrade policy on agroecology was developed to bridge the gap between social justice and the global climate crisis and bring our climate work in line with our 2021-2025 Global Strategy.

You can find further information on Fairtrade’s monitoring system on the website of Fairtrade International. „Few Multistakeholder Initiatives are as committed as Fairtrade International to assessing and responding to research on their impacts“, notes MSI Integrity (2020, page 202).

Communicating risks and progress. This Fairtrade Risk Map communicates the salient risks related to Fairtrade’s operations and certified supply chains, their root causes, and Fairtrade’s key interventions on the salient issues. The map is based on Fairtrade’s ongoing risk assessment and designed to support risk assessment by companies and producers.

Partnerships. We collaborate with trade unions, NGOs, multi-stakeholder initiatives, development agencies, business coalitions and governments at local, national and global level to develop and amplify our efforts. Please see the above section on Fairtrade support for mitigation and remediation for further information.

For further considerations, please see

Helpdesk Business & Human Rights: What standards can achieve
ISEAL Briefing Note (2020): Corporate due diligence, sustainability standards and certification
OECD (2022): The role of sustainability initiatives in mandatory due diligence
SHIFT (2013): From Audit to Innovation: Advancing Human Rights in Global Supply Chains
OECD Alignment Assessments of Industry and Multi-Stakeholder Programmes (in minerals and the garment and footwear sector)

Continuous development

No guarantees

Fairtrade’s support for corporate HREDD efforts does not guarantee that a supply chain is free from human rights or environmental violations. Many violations are rooted in poverty and complex societal, economic and commercial challenges that cannot be fixed quickly.

However, Fairtrade is committed to support companies on their journey towards aligning with due diligence laws. Collaboration and continuous improvement underline our work.

Fairtrade supports farmers and workers to speak up about their challenges. We seek to connect farmers and workers with retailers, brands and traders to foster meaningful dialogue, concrete collaboration and co-investment in the mitigation and remediation of salient issues.

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